 Gen info
- Stachytrapheta jamaicensis is a species of plant in the family Verbenaceae.
- Etymology: The genus name Stachytarpheta derives from Greek words stachys (spike) and tarphys (thick), referring to the spike inflorescence found in many species of the genus.
Botany
• Kandikandilaan is an erect and branched half-woody
plant, 1 to 1.5 meters high. Stems are terete, the younger ones slightly angled.
Leaves are elliptic to oblong-ovate, 2.5 to 10 centimeters long, with pointed
tips and toothed margins, the base decurrent on the petiole. The spikes
are terminal, rather slender, 10 to 30 centimeters long, 3-4 millimeters thick, green and continuous.
Calyx is small, oblique, and 4-toothed. Corolla is deep blue, 1 centimeter long,
The fruit is enclosed in the calyx, appressed to and somewhat sunk in the rachis, smooth, oblong, and about 4 millimeters long.
• Woody erect shrub with long prominent spike inflorescences. Foliage: Opposite leaves are elliptic to ovate with dentate leaf margin (4 - 11 cm long). Stems: Woody stem has tan bark with linear-shaped lenticels. Flowers: Salverform, blue to purple flowers have a white throat and 5 lobes (1.3 cm wide). They are arranged on a 15 - 40 cm long terminal spike inflorescence (an inflorescence at the stem tip which has stalkless flowers held along one main axis). Only about 2 - 3 flowers are open at a time on the spike, lasting for one day and replaced by a new set the next day. The inflorescence blooms in this manner for several weeks. Fruit: Dry, indehiscent fruit is known as a nutlet, a one-seeded small nutlike fruit. It is formed by the fragmentation of a multi-sectioned fruit into single-seeded pieces. (71)
Distribution
- Naturalized.
-
Common weed in open and
waste places at low and medium altitudes in settled areas throughout the Philippines.
- Native to Bahamas, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil North, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Florida, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Leeward Is., Mexico Central, Mexico Gulf, Mexico Northeast, Mexico Southeast, Mexico Southwest, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panamá, Puerto Rico, Southwest Caribbean, Suriname, Trinidad-Tobago, Turks-Caicos Is., Venezuela, Venezuelan Antilles, Windward Is. (23)
- Now pantropic.
 Constituents
- Phytochemical studies have yielded flavonoids, triterpenes, monoterpenes, iridoids, phytosterols, aromatic acids, GABA, dopamine and alkanes.
- Phytochemicals isolated include epigenol-7-glucoronide, alpha-spinasterol, stachytarphine, scutellarein, ursolic acid, scultellarein and verbascoside.
-
A glucoside, stachytarphine
has been isolated from the plant.
- An iridoid glycoside, verbascoside or acetoside, has been isolated from the plant, shown to be a powerful antioxidant phytochemical.
- A flavonoid, scuttelarein, has been isolated, with cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory and antiviral actions.
- Hopidulin, another flavonoids, is reported to be bronchodilator, antispasmodic and anti-asthmatic.
- Phytoscreening yielded phenolic compounds, tannin, saponins, terpenoids and flavonoid.
- Phytochemical screening of stems yielded carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids, alkaloids, phenolic compounds and tannins, flavonoids, saponins, phytosterols, fixed oils and fats, gums and mucilages, terpenoids, glycosides.
(25)
- Crude methanolic extract of leaves and fractions yielded the presence of carbohydrates, reducing sugars, alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, resins, proteins, steroids, and terpenoids. (see study below) (30)
- GC-MS analysis of leaf extract yielded 30 organic compounds. Most abundant components were
3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-2,3-dihydro-4H-pyran-4-one (13.7%), D-arabinitol (13.5%), 2-benzylidenemalonic acid (11.9%), 1,3-cyclopentadione (8.9%), α-5-ethyl-2-furylglycine (6.8%), 4,5-dihydro-5-methoxy-4-(2,3-dimethyl-2-buten-4-yl)-2(3H)-furanone (6.4%) and 3-methyl-2H-indazol-2-ol (5.8%). (see study below) (40)
- GC-MS analysis of essential oil of S. jamaicensis showed presence of limonene (13.85%), eucalyptol (10.73%), linalool (5.36%), cis-verbenol (19.54%), bornyl acetate (12.65%), and ß-phellandrene (5.59%) as major components, representing a total of 67.72% of total volatile fraction.
(see study below) (58)
Properties
- Considered emetic,, expectorant, tonic.
-
Secondary metabolites display oxytoxic, neuroprotective, antiviral, antibacterial, cardioactive and antitumor effects.
- Studies have suggest antimicrobial, antiplasmodial, galactogenic, antidiarrheal, antioxidant, cytotoxic, hypoglycemic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressant, hepatoprotective, galactogenic, hair-promoting, antidiabetic, gastroprotective, insecticidal, wound healing properties.
Parts utilized
Leaves, stems, roots.
 Uses
Edibility
- Tips of twigs used as pot herb or condiment.
- Green leaves chopped and cooked, eaten alone or mixed with other vegetables.
- Dried leaves used to make tea; also used to adulterate tea.
- In St. Croix, fresh leaves are consumed in bush tea as "cooling" tonic. (48)
Folkloric
- In Maisin, Iloilo, leaves used as open wound poultice for healing.
-
Decoction or roots are
abortive.
- Decoction of leaves are vermifuge to children.
- In the Antilles, juice of fresh leaves is emetocathartic.
- Decoction of leaves in enemas used to expel intestinal worms; also used
as purging vehicle for other vermifuges.
- Infusion of roots has been used for gonorrhea.
- Triturated fresh leaves used on ulcers. Used as maturative cataplasm for boils.
- Bruised leaves rubbed on sprains and bruises.
- In Brazil, used for coughs, fever, to expel
worms and promote menstruation; as a diuretic and laxative. Also used for rheumatism. (•) In Brazil and other countries encompassing the Amazon rainforest, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis and S. cayennensis are interchange-ably used in folk medicine. (44)
- In the West Indies, used to expel worms.
- Creoles use the leaf tea for dysentery.
- In North Nigeria, decoction used for dysentery. Also used as vermifuge.
- In Southern Nigeria, used by women for menstrual disorders and female complaints. Leaf decoction taken after childbirth to help restore the uterus to its original position. (28)
- In Africa, used for treatment of gonorrhea, eye disorders, ear sores in children, and for heart trouble. (47)
- In Peru, used for diabetes.
- In Cuban herbal medicine, used as an abortive.
- In immigrant Haitian communities in Cuba, an infusion made from three whorls or tops of S. jamaicensis is used for children in the morning on an empty stomach as an anthelmintic.
- In traditional medicine, leaves and stem extracts used to prepare drugs for use as stomach tonic, for dyspepsia, allergies, asthma, fevers and liver problems. Externally,used for ulcers, sores, cuts and wounds.
- Leaves used to increase milk supply in lactating women. (30)
- In Jamaica, plant is used for asthma, colds, diabetes, epilepsy,and flu; and as blood purifier and vermifuge. In Taiwanese folk medicine, used for liver disease and rheumatism. (45)
-
In Panama, it is a component of an herbal mix, Black Drink, along with Hyptis suaveolens, Senna spp., and juice from Citrus aurantifolia, prepared in a cast iron vessel, used to treat iron deficiency anemia. (45)
- In St. Croix, fresh leaves are consumed in bush tea as "cooling" tonic and blood cleanser, and to treat asthma and stomach ulcers. (48)
- In Amazonia, used for asthma, fever, stomach pains; Bahamas, as abortifacient, vermifuge, for asthma and bronchitis; Belize, for boils, colds, flu, neuralgia; Cuba, abortive, anticatarrhal, antidiabetic; Haiti, as cathartic, emmenagogue, sedative, vermifuge; Jamaica, as emmenagogue, vermifuge; Malaya, as abortive, antimalarial; Mexico, for amenorrhea, gonorrheam syphilis, yellow fever; Samoa, for boils, nausea, rhinitis; Trinidad, as depurative, purgative, vermifuge, for dysentery, eczema, fever, flu; West Indies, as anthelmintic, emmenagogue, vermifuge, for childbirth, dysmenorrhea. (69)
Others
- Rituals: In the Bahamas, called the Voodoo plant
or voodoo flower.
- Fodder: In Trinidad, report of use of leaves as
high protein feed for horses.
- Ethnoveterinary: Used as lactagogue. (45)
Studies
• Antidiarrheal / Antimicrobial / Leaves:
Study evaluated the anti-diarrheal (castor oil and magnesium sulphate induced diarrhea in mice) and antimicrobial activity (disk diffusion method) of methanol extract of Stachytarpheta jamaicaensis leaves. Results showed significant
(p<0.05) antidiarrheal activity and moderate inhibitory activity against E. coli,
S. epidermis and P. aeruginosa with MIC of 5.00 µg/ml. (1)
• Antioxidant / O2-Scavenging Activity:
Inhibitory effects of leaf extracts of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis
(Verbenaceae) on the respiratory burst of rat macrophages: Extract showed
potent O2-scavenging activity. Study suggest SJ may have potential pharmaceutical
value for immunologic diseases related to oxidative stress. (2)
• Anti-Hypertensive / Bradycardic
Effect: Some Cardiovascular Effects of the Aqueous Extract
of the Leaves of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis L. Vahl: The aqueous extract
of SJ leaves caused a dose-dependent drop in blood pressure and heart
rate. The acute hypotensive effect could be partly caused by a negative
chronotropic effect of direct effect on vascular smooth muscles. (3)
• Antinociceptive
/ Anti-Inflammatory / Leaves:
Study evaluated an ethanol extract of SJ leaves for antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects using 3 models of nociception (acetic acid induced abdominal writhing, hot plate, and formalin induced paw licking tests) and 2 models of inflammation (carrageenan-induced paw edema and cotton pellet-induced granuloma tests) in experimental animals. Results showed significant dose-dependent
nociceptive activity in all nociceptive models tested. The extract also
showed significant anti-inflammatory activity in both acute and chronic
models. The analgesic activity was assumed to be modulated via peripheral
and central mechanisms, partly involving the activation of the opioid
receptor system. (5)
• Phytochemicals
/ Antimicrobial / Toxicity Study: Phytochemical study
yielded secondary metabolites including tannins, saponins and flavonoids.
Crude aqueous extract showed activity against B subtilis, E coli, C
albicans, S aureus, P aeruginosa, P vulgaris, P mirabilis. No toxicity
was found even at high concentrations. (6) Acute toxicity study of aqueous extract of leaves on wistar rats showed no toxicity up to doses of 4 g/kbw. Alcoholic extract of leaf showed antimicrobial activity at high concentration against S. aureus and P. vulgaris. (24)
•
Toxicity Study: A study on 20 Wistar rats on
the effect of powdered SJ leaves, using serum biochemistry and ultrasonography
showed no toxicity, suggesting a wide therapeutic margin of safety. (7)
•
Anti-Dyslipidemia / Anti-Atherogenic:The effects of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis tea on plasma lipid profile and atherogenic indices were studied in rabbits. Treatment caused significant decreases (p<0.05) in plasma total cholesterol, LDL, VLDL and triglycerides, increase (p<0.05) in HDL cholesterol, with also significant (p<0.05) decreases in atherogenic indices. The results suggest the use of TJ tea in the management of primary and secondary dyslipidemia, and possibly, reduction in the risk of cardiovascular diseases. (11)
•
Steroidal Glucosides: Study reported two novel steroid glucosides from the leaves of S. jamaicensis. The occurrence of steroidal glucoside in SJ may explain the use of the plant in phytomedicine for birth control, abortion, treatment of menstrual disorders and as a lactagogue. (12)
•
Antimicrobial: Study showed more antimicrobial activity with the chloroform extract against gram positive organisms like Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and B. subtilis. The chloroform and alcohol extracts showed antifungal activity against C. albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. (14)
•
Lanostane Glycoside: Study of leaves isolated a new lanostane triterpenoid glycoside 16ß-(ß-D-glycopyranosyl-3-8,-dihydroxylanstan-5,22-diene-11-methoxy-1ß-yl-6-O-(2,3-dimethoxybenzoyl)-ß-d-glycopyranoside.
•
Antimicrobial / Cytotoxic: Root extract was found to inhibit most of the bacterial growth compared to leaves and stem extracts. In the study on cytotoxic effect, leaves extracts showed the highest inhibition on the growth of Hela cancer cells compared to the root and stem extract. (15)
•
Hypoglycemic / Leaves: Study evaluated the hypoglycemic effect of an ethanolic extract of S. indica on blood glucose level of streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Results dose dependent hypoglycemic activity almost equal to the standard drug Metformin. (18)
•
Antibacterial / Root: Study evaluated the antibacterial activity of aqueous and methanolic extracts of root. The aqueous extract showed significant antibacterial activity against E. coli, B. cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter pathogens. (19)
•
Antibacterial / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated aqueous and ethanol extracts of aerial parts. Phytochemical screening yielded alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, carbohydrates and saponins. The alcoholic extract showed significant activity against all species of bacteria (S. aureus, E coli, P aeruginosa and K pneumonia) comparable to standard antibiotic streptomycin. (20)
•
Analgesic / Leaves: Study evaluated the analgesic activity of various extracts of dried leaves on acetic induced writing responses in Swiss albino mice. Result showed significant analgesic effect. (21)
•
Wound Healing / Leaves: Study evaluated the wound healing effect of a hydroalcoholic leaf extract of S. jamaicensis on streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Results showed significant dose dependent wound healing potential with a significant increase in percentage wound closure, tensile strength, hydroxyproline, Hexosamine, DNA and total protein content together with decrease in period of epithelization and blood glucose levels. (22) Study investigated the wound healing activity of SJ leaf extract in alloxan-induced male diabetic rats, The most effective dose that sped up wound closure was the 0.2% extract. (31) Study evaluated a crude ethanolic leaf extract of SJ for wound healing activity in an excision wound model in albino rats. External application of crude leaf extract significantly accelerated wound healing. Phytochemical screening yielded tannin, flavonoids, saponin, terpenoids, glycosides, and phenols which may contribute to the wound healing potential. (34)
•
Antimicrobial / Cytotoxic: Study evaluate crude plant extracts for antimicrobial and cytotoxicity activities. It showed highest zone of inhibition on Pseudomonas aeruginosa compared to other bacteria. The root extracts showed greater inhibition of bacterial growth. On cytotoxicity study, leaf extracts showed the highest inhibition on growth of HeLa cancer cells compared to root and stem extract. (26)
•
Immunomodulatory Effect: Study evaluated the immunomodulatory effect of a water extract of S. jamaicensis on male Balb/c mice using carbon clearance assay. Results showed SJ at dose of 62.5 and 250 mg/kbw had lower phagocytic index compared to Zymosan A as immunostimulant, but higher phagocytic index compared to methylprednisolone as immunosuppressant. (27)
• Hypoglycemic / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study evaluated the hypoglycemic and antioxidant activities of S. jamaicensis ethanolic extract of leaves in alloxan-induced diabetic male Sprague Dawley rats. Results showed lowering of blood glucose and improved catalase activity. The presence of genipin and linolenic acid by GCMS analysis may have contributed to the hypoglycemic and antioxidant activity. (29)
• Galactogenic / Acute Toxicity Study / Leaves: Study evaluated the effect of crude methanolic extract of fractions of SJ leaves on serum PRL levels. Acute toxicity study (LD50) of CME, HF, EF, BF, and WF were >5000 mg/kg. Results showed SJ possesses galactogenic property with a wide therapeutic index as evidenced by an appreciable dose dependent increase in serum PRL and histological findings of mammary gland development and differentiation of the lobulo-alveolar system with milk secretion within the lumen of the alveoli and ducts. (see constituents above) (30)
• Wide Safety Margin / Leaves: Study evaluated the effect of powdered SJ leaves for toxicity in 20 Wistar rats using various enzyme parameters and ultrasound evaluation. Results showed no significant alteration in normal serum biochemistry and echogenic patters suggest wide therapeutic safe margin in the use of SJ. (32)
• Antifungal / Leaves: Study of an aqueous leaf extract of S. jamaicensis inhibited the growth of fungi such as Aspergillus sclerotiorum, Fusarium oxysporuum, Memnoniella echinata and Penicillium corylophilum. (33)
• Inhibitory Effect on Angiogenesis / Leaves: Study of a crude leaf extract using CAM (chorioallantoic membrane) showed a detrimental effect towards the development of chicken embryo, especially in the formation of extra embryonic vessels. Results may be useful in medical problems related to angiogenesis (new vessel formation from preexisting vessels) and its relation to tumor growth. (36)
• Hair Growth Promoter / Leaves: Study evaluated the effectiveness of S. jamaicensis leaves extract as hair growth promoter on Sprague Dawley rats. Results showed effective hair growth effect as evidenced by increase in hair length (p<0.05). The effect was attributed to palmitic acid that has antiandrogenetic alopecia property. (37)
• Inhibitory Uterine Effect on Non-Pregnant Uterus: Study evaluated the oxytoxic effect of methanol extract of S. jamaicensis on uterine smooth muscles of non-pregnant female rats. SJ exhibited significant inhibitory effects on OT (oxytocin) and CaCl2 induced uterine contractions (p<0.05). The inhibitory uterine inhibitory effects in rats appear to be unrelated to ß2-adrenergic receptor stimulation, but may be due to inhibition of calcium entry into the cytoplasm. (38)
• Antioxidant / Anti-Arthritic / Anti-Inflammatory / Bactericidal / Leaves: Study of leaf extract showed high egg albumin and BSA anti-arthritic/anti-inflammatory values between 22-80% with IC50s of 0.04 and 0.15 mg/ml, respectively. The extract exhibited activity against all tested bacteria with high zones of inhibition (14.0-25.0 mm). The total TPC, TFC, TTC, TAA, ß-carotene and lycopene values were were 1,882.80 μg/mg GAE, 29.29 μg/mg-1 QE, 126.47 μg/mg TAE, 53.75 μg/mg AAE, 0.17 mg/g and 0.14 mg/g, 1respectively. The antioxidant IC50 and AAI values of the leaf extract were 5.0 μgml-1 and 8.0. The extract was capable of scavenging free radicals in a range between 51.30-78.99%. (see constituents above) (40)
• Antioxidant
/ Anti-Inflammatory / Dried Leaves: Study evaluated the antioxidant effects of ethyl acetate (EAc) and n-hexane (nHE) extracts of dried leaves on reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated during respiratory burst of rat peritoneal macrophages. The EAc at concentrations between 0.4 and 40 µg/ml, inhibited extracellular release of oxygen radicals by peritoneal macrophages stimulated by PMA and showed potent scavenging activity. Study suggests the EAcE has potential in the treatment of immunopathological diseases related to oxidative stress. (41)
• Histopathologic Effects /
Leaves: Study evaluated the toxicity of powdered S. jamaicensis leaves in 20 Wistar rats. Powdered leaf concentrations of 75, 50, and 25 g were mixed with 25, 50, and 75 g of normal feed mash. Results showed slight physical variations and mild histopathologic changes in the liver, blood vessels, kidney, lung, and testis while the brain, eyes, intestines and heart tissues were normal. Study showed mild tissue specific toxicity which were not concentration dependent. (42) (read other studies on toxicity: 6 and 24)
• Anticandidal: In a study 21 extracts from 19 medicinal plants for antimicrobial activity, the ethyl acetate extract of B. balsamifera and Stachytarpheta jamaicensis showed the highest anticandidal activity with inhibition value of 39-57%. (43)
• Beneficial Plant for Butterfly Conservation: Study in Sri Lanka reports Stachytarpheta jamaicensis is an important nectar plant which attracts a diverse set of butterflies in high number during peak hours for its violet color inflorescence. The plant attracted a diverse group of butterflies from around 15 species including one endemic, two endemic subspecies, and 2 vulnerable species. Study suggests it is a beneficial exotic plant that can be used in butterfly attraction and conservation. (46)
• Hepato- and Reno-Protective / LPS-Induced Endotoxemia: Study in mice suggests supplementation with S. jamaicensis may have potential in protecting the liver and kidney from LPS (lipopolysaccharide)-induced endotoxemia by determination of lipid peroxidation and histology assessment. In histology assessment, higher doses of SJ supplementation improved hepatocyte structure and decreased congestion of central vein. In kidney tissue, there was decreased lipid peroxidation and lower SJI50 lesion score. (49)
• α-Glucosidase Inhibitory / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study evaluated the antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of four extracts of S. jamaicensis leaves. The methanol extract exhibited inhibition of DPPH, ABTS, and α-glucosidase activity compared to other solvent extracts. The ME also yielded 6ß-hydroxy-
ipolamide, which was reported to have α-glucosidase inhibitory activity with IC50 of 539.17 µg/mL. Results warrant recommendation as an antioxidant and antidiabetic agent. (50)
• Anti-Gastro-Ulcerative / Flavonoids / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated flavonoid compounds from methanol extract of aerial parts of S. jamaicensis for protective and therapeutic effects against gastric ulcer. Ranitidine was used as reference drug. Six flavonoid compounds were isolated: vitexin, isovitexin, apigenin 7,4'-dimethyl ether, 5,7,2'-trimethoxyflavone, and scutellarein. Treatment showed amelioration in all biochemical parameters including stomach pH, gastric juice volume, number of lesions glutathione, SOD, malondialdehyde, succinate dehydrogenase, LDH, acid phosphatase, IL-10, PGE-2, and total protein levels in gastric tissue. Results showed prophylactic and treatment effects of aerial parts against gastric ulcer in rats. Treatment exceeded protective role. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects were attributed to presence of flavonoid compounds. (51)
• Antidiabetic / Toxicological Profile / Leaves: Study evaluated the antidiabetic activity, phyto-constituents, and safety of leaf extracts of S. jamaicensis. The methanol extract showed an LD50 of >5000 mg/kg. Phytochemical screening yielded flavonoids, resins, alkaloids, steroids, terpenoids, reducing sugars, and saponins. Preliminary antidiabetic study showed non-dose dependent reduction in blood glucose level of alloxan-induced diabetic rats. MEJS showed significant (p<0.01) hypoglycemic / anti-hyperglycemic effects (25.40 and 55.80%) against glibencladmie (12.60 and 51.40%) in normal rats for acute and chronic studies, respectively, and 22.00 and 86.90% against glibenclamide (19,37 and 85.50%) in diabetic rats. The ME showed favorable histopathological changes in the pancreas, liver and kidney in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Results showed antidiabetic activity and not toxicity on long term administration. (52)
• Effect on Weight and Packed Cell Volume / T. brucei brucei Infection / Leaves: Study evaluated the effect of S. jamaicensis leaves on weight and PCV of mice experimentally infected with T. brucei brucei. Treatment with methanol leaf extract resulted in significant increase (p<0.05) in weight of treated mice, with significantly higher packed cell volume values compared to untreated group. Results suggest anti-trypanosomal properties and a potential alternative in the absence of synthetic chemical drugs. (53)
• Histological and Toxicity Studies on Liver, Kidney, Heart and Lungs: Study evaluated the histological and toxicity studies of S. jamaicensis extracts on liver, kidney, lungs and heart of albino rats. Acute toxicity study showed LD50 of all extracts higher than 5000 mg/kg, with no signs of illness of death. Subacute toxicity study showed no adverse effects on blood, biochemical, and histological parameters measured. Results suggest oral use of aqueous and ethanol extracts of leaf and root at low to medium doses over 21 days did not induce harmful effects. (54)
• Ursolic Acid / Antidiabetic / Anti-Inflammatory / Leaves: Study evaluated the antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory activities of urosolic acid, a triterpenoid isolated from dichloromethane fraction of methanol extract of S. jamaicensis leaves. Results showed significant (p<0.05) reduction (72.79 and 79.77%) in fasting blood glucose with doses of 25 and 50 mg/kg, respectively, compared to control. Standard drug glibenclamide showed 77.77% reduction. Dose of 20 mg/kg exhibiited maximum inhibition (75%, p<0.05) of carrageenan-induced ear edema in mice. Acute toxicity study showed recorded no death at doses up to 5000 mg/kg. (55)
• Cytotoxic Against HeLa and T47D Cancer Cell Lines / Leaves: Study evaluated ethanolic and dichloromethane extracts of leaves, stems, and flowers of S. jamaicensis for cytotoxic activity against two cancer cell lines i.e., HeLa and T47D. Only the dichloromethane extract of leaves showed cytotoxic activities in HeLa and T47D with IC50s of 84.198 and 64.167 µg/ml, respectively. (56)
• Antidiabetic / Leaves: Study evaluated the antidiabetic effect of ethanol extract of S. jamaicensis leaves on streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic male albino rats fed on a high-fat diet (HFD). Results showed significant decrease (p<0.05) in blood glucose, along with significant reductions in AST, ALP, total protein, and bilirubin. Lipid profile showed significant reduction (p<0.05) in TC, triacylglycerol, LDL, VLDL, with high levels of HDL. Extract significantly (p<0.05) ameliorated weight loss. Histopathology of liver, kidney and pancreas showed ameliorative effects on deleterious changes occasioned by HFD and STZ. (57)
• Antioxidant / Anti-Inflammatory / Essential Oil from Leaves: Study evaluated the chemical composition and invitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potentials of EO of S. jamaicensis leaves. Antioxidant potential was assessed using DPPH and FRAP assays. Anti-inflammatory activity was assessed by using inhibition of heat and hypotonicity induced hemolysis of RBC. The EO showed strong anti-inflammatory properties and minimal scavenging of DPPH and FRAP compared to standard. Results showed a promising source of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents for phamaceutical applications. (see constituents above) (58)
• Inhibition of Cathepsin / COVID-19 Treatment Target: Study evaluated the inhibitory effects of compounds of S. jamaicensis toward cathepsin L (Cat L) by computational docking analysis. Ten compounds viz., α-spinasterol, apigenin, luteolol-7-glucuronide, friedelin, hispiduliin, chlorogenic acid, ipolamiide, geraniol, hentricontane and γ-aminobutyric acid were selected as ligands. Apigenin showed the best binding affinity, with much hydrogen bonding, and had the same ASN18 residue as Cat L inhibitor 1. PreADMET showed all compounds did not have hepatotoxicity, mutagenic and carcinogenic criteria. Study suggests the compounds can be used as inhibitor of Cat L and as a COVID-19 drug candidate. (59)
• Antidiabetic Apigenin / Leaves: Apigenin is a polyphenolic flavonoid compound and is considered highly therapeutic. Study evaluated the antidiabetic activity of apigenin isolated from dichloromethane: methanol extract of leaves of S. jamaicensis in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. The compound identified as apigenin (4,5,7-trihydroxy flavones) showed significant (p<0.05) reduction of 879.56 and81.74% in fasting blood glucose at doses of 25 and 50 mg/kg compared to standard glibenclamide 83.40^%). Phytochemical analysis yielded flavonoids. LD50 test showed the apigenin is non toxic. Results suggest the apigenin has potent antidiabetic properties. (60)
• ZnO Nanoparticles / Antibacterial / Leaves: Study reports on the synthesis of zinc oxide (ZnO) and Cu-doped ZnO nanoparticles (1% and 5%; Cu-doped ZnONPs) using aqueous leaf extract of S. jamaicensis. The NPs showed antibacterial activities only against gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus), with MICs range from <25 to 50 mg/mL. (61)
• Effect on Body Weight and Liver Functions / Powdered Leaves: Study evaluated the potential dose-related effects of powdered S. jamaicensis leaves on body weights and liver of albino rats fed mixtures of pellet feedmash 25, 50 and 75 g mixed with different concentration s of powdered S. jamaicensis leaves. Results showed slight variation in agility, food intake and physical appearances f rats with mild congestion, fatty changes and necrosis in the liver Results suggest S. jamaicensis did not cause large variations in body weights (p>0.05) but causes few changes in the liver of albino rats, which is not significantly different (p>0.05) from control group. (62)
• Anti-Trematode Activity / Leaves: Study evaluated the anti-trematode activity of S. jamaicensis leaf extract in-vitro on Paramphistomum sp isolated from the rumen. Anti-trematode effect was determined by time required to destroy the worms. Average time of worm death was 30 and 240 minutes for positive and negative controls. Extract concentrations of 10%, 5%, and 2.5% killed the Paramphistomum in an average period of 45, 60, and 80 minutes. The 10% concentration was most effective (p<0.05), suggesting potential use as an anti-trematode. (63)
• Anti-Inflammatory Effect on TNF-α / Leaves: Study evaluated the effect of Porterweed leaf extract on TNF-α level in a Wistar rat chronic inflammation model. The leaf extract suppressed chronic inflammatory process through down regulation of TNF-α and prostaglandin activity in optimum dose of 150 mg/kbw. (64)
• Antibacterial Gel Against Staphylococcus aureus / Leaves: Study evaluated the antibacterial gel formulation incorporated with S. jamaicensis leaf extract against Staphylococcus aureus. The gel's antibacterial activity was compared with negative control (gel base) and positive control (hand sanitizer) using agar well diffusion method. The gel exhibited zone of inhibition of 4.67 mm, compared to hand sanitizer ZOI of 6.17 mm. (65)
• Hand Sanitizer Formulation: Study assessed the solvent effect of hand sanitizer formulation from pecut kuda (S. jamaicensis) extract using three combinations solvent of 0:1, 1:!, and 1:2 for water and ethanol tested for antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. Results showed the best antibacterial activity was 0:1 composition of water and ethanol. The best formula of hand sanitizer was 11.7% HPMC K 100 M and 88.3% PEG, with antiseptic activity of 69.19%. (66)
• Effect on Hematologic Profile / Water Extract of Leaves: Study evaluated the effect of water extract of S. jamaicensis on hematological profile, spleen organ index and spleen histology in male Balb/c mice
induced imiquimod, using extract doses of 25, 50, and 100 mg/kbw. Results showed all extract doses can increase white blood cells including lymphocytes, mid-sized cells, granulocytes, red blood cells, hemoglobin, hematocrit and platelets compared to control group (p<0.05). The extract at all doses can also prevent enlargement of the spleen and reduce the level of lymphocyte infiltration in the spleen. (67)
• Insecticidal / Anti-Aedes aegypti: In a bioassays of extracts from eight plants tested for toxicity towards Aedes aegypti, one of the mosquito species responsible for transmission of denque hemorrhagic fever in the Caribbean region, the most effect plant extracts were from Stachytrapheta jamaicensis, Justicia pectoralis, and Manihot utilissima. (68)
• Combination Treatment / Effect on Intraocular Pressure / Ocular Hypertension and Glaucoma: Study evaluated the effect of aqueous extracts of S. jamaicensis (SJ) and Garcinia kola (GK) and synergistic combination in 1% prednisolone induced-intraocular pressure (IOP) for 14 days in rabbits. Control groups were administered prednisolone and 0.5% timolol. Result showed significant decrease in mean intraocular pressure of SJ (6.33 mmHg), GK (6.11 mmHg), and combination (5.33 mmHg) compared with untreated control (13.00 mmHg). Results validated effects of the extracts in managing ocular hypertension and glaucoma. (70)
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